Occupations of the People
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In the previous Report (1851, Part II. Vol. I.) some account will be found of the results of inquiries into the occupations of the people, and of the various classifications which were employed by Mr. Rickman and by the Census Commissioners of 1841. In 1851 we introduced a new method of analysis, which is described in the Report for that year. The observations then made are applicable, with some slight modifications, to the present abstracts. For although we were able to introduce some improvements in the preliminary instructions, and the occupations were better described than in any previous Census, the confusion and imperfections of nomenclature were only partially overcome in 1861. This branch of the abstracts has occupied a large portion of the labour of the Central Occupations. Office. It was considered important to extend the inquiry, so as to show, as nearly as was practicable, the number of men, women, and children in every trade or profession; and to obviate some of the difficulties which had interferred with the previous inquiries, short instructions on important points were printed upon every householder's schedule; and instructions still more elaborate were distributed among the enumerators and registrars. The result has been a great improvement in the quality of the information under this head; although it is still imperfect, as the inquiry is attended with inherent difficulties, which can only be removed by special' measures, to which we shall shortly advert. If the names are taken by which people designate their own occupations, it is found that they amount to several thousands; that in some instances, the same name is applied to different occupations; that various names are applied to the same occupations in different counties; and that the occupations in town and country, in manufacturing and other districts, are subdivided to a very different extent. Several of the names arc vague and of doubtful interpretation. It was held to be desirable, not only to take out the numbers of persons of each sex in each occupation, but the numbers at each quinquennial period of age; for without this information the relative salubrity of the professions, and a great variety of important questions, cannot be determined. But the mechanical difficulties of the undertaking were great. It would be, and was felt to be, a vain expenditure of time to attempt to compress the numbers returned under each occupation and each age in one table for each district; so upon observing that certain occupations were followed by few persons, the printed list of males for use in 1861 was reduced to 431 occupations, on lines which were vertically cut by lines to indicate the quinquennial ages. The facts respecting the occupations of males were in the analysis laid down on sheets 26 inches long by 51 inches wide; and the ages
of those whose occupations were not in the large list were written in printed supplementary sheets for subsequent transcription. To have ensured perfect accuracy in all the details, the whole of the abstracts of the occupations should have been repeated in duplicate and compared; but with the force at our disposal, this could not have been achieved in the prescribed time. Considerable pains were taken to correct evident errors of nomenclature; to instruct, assist, and check the abstractors in their work; so that, notwithstanding the difficulties in the way, we look with confidence on all the general results of their labours. The occupations which were referred to "Others" in the several sub-classes, and which appear in detail only in the large Tables XVII. and XIX., Census 1861, Vol. II., are the least satisfactory part of the abstracts; but those which appear in the original abstract tables, comprising the occupations in which large numbers are engaged, are published in detail for each county and district; and in the Tables XVII. and XIX. they are printed in capital letters; as they are, on the whole, the most accurate and important in this kind of classification. The tabulation was elaborate, and employed much skill and careful attention. It is important, in a Census of the people, to show not only the numbers that follow each occupation, but their distribution over the country; and this it will be seen is done for counties, for districts, and for all the large towns of the country. To this circumstance chiefly the voluminousness of the publication is referable; and it must be borne in mind that the Census is a topographical as well as a national survey, and that, as far as is practicable, it is desirable to supply the inhabitant of each district with that information in which he is most particularly interested. Hence in the first volume (for 1851) it was deemed right to publish the area and population of each of the several thousands of parishes and townships
in Great Britain; and in the second volume, besides the county returns, the occupations of the males and females of the age of 20 years and upwards in each district
appear in detail. In the early stages of society the occupations are so simple that whole tribes have been designated hunters, shepherds, agriculturists, according as the members live on the produce of the chase, on the produce of their flocks, or on the produce of the cultivated land. There is in such cases but one chief occupation, and the subsidiary occupations arc few, employing comparatively small numbers. How different, and how much more complicated the social organization of the people of Great Britain is in the present day, the great variety of occupations in the tables shows. To render this evident to the eye, and to give a general notion of the distribution of employments over the face of the country, we requested Mr. Petermann, in 1851, to construct a Map from the tabular data with which he was supplied. That Map we do not propose to republish: it requires little correction to adapt it to the state of things in 1861. The general tint of the map is green—to indicate the diffusion over the country of agricultural population, comprising' the landowners, the" farmers, the graziers, and the various classes of workmen either in or out of doors; watching the flocks on the hill pastures, managing the herds in the meadows, working with the horses the arable fields, or labouring in the various buildings for carrying on the multifarious processes of production, which are now branches of agriculture. The figures of ships and fishes around the coasts, or in every creek, show that another large class of the population surrounds the inhabited islands of Great Britain, and is constantly employed in drawing sustenance from the rivers and the deep waters of the sea; or in constructing, animating, and directing ships that connect the islands and the continents of the earth, and are at once the carriages and the highways of the ocean The Celt on the hills, the Anglo-Saxon in his farm-house, and the Scandinavian in his ship—all find suitable occupations. They are diffused over sea and land. Mr. Petermann has conceived a great variety of quaint, ingenious, and suggestive devices, which are scattered in profusion over the map, to represent the people that are engaged in works, crafts, mines, and manufactures; and the first, and, we believe, a true, impression, on glancing over the symbols of the map—so crowded in certain parts that marginal references are necessary—undoubtedly is, that the British people are very ingenious, and very industrious; as there is scarcely a mineral, a plant, or an animal on the earth or under the earth, that they have not undertaken to move, to modify, or to make subservient to some use. Besides agriculturists, fishermen, and seamen, the trades common to towns are as widely diffused as the towns themselves; which are sufficiently indicated by the maps in the previous Report. The map shows only the places where certain well-defined works and manufactures are concentrated. Thus ships are made at Woolwich. In London silk is manufactured; watches are constructed; ale and porter are brewed; pottery, and engines and machines are made in a large way: gardens surround it for the supply of vegetables; on both sides of the Thames paper is manufactured. Straw-plait, lace, and shoes employ the people in the South-midland counties; the silk manufacture extends to Bucks, to Suffolk, to Norfolk—particularly around Norwich—to Coventry, Nottingham, and Macclesfield, with the districts surrounding the towns. Silk now employs hands in Manchester and Bradford. Glovers abound about Yeovil, Barnstaple, Worcester, and Woodstock. Thus the seats of the principal manufactures can be traced: the miners and the manufacturers of the principal metals; quarriers; the people spinning and weaving wool, silk, cotton, and flax; the manufacturers
or makers
of hats, stockings, gloves, shoes, watches and clocks, guns, engines, machines, tools, ships, chemicals, soap, combs, skins, leather, ale, toys, straw-plait, ropes, nets, thread, paper, glass, jewellery, locks, buttons, wire, nails, anchors, boilers, files, cutlery, needles and pins. A Table at page 133 of the Appendix contains a list of the principal localities in which Table se. the various works are carried on. A Census in the most extended sense, and as it has been understood in some countries, embraces an enumeration of the visible property and of the annual produce; it includes, therefore, industrial and agricultural Statistics. The present Census was restricted by the Act to an enumeration of the population, and of certain circumstances illustrative.of their condition and occupations. No attempt could therefore be made to enumerate the number of manufactories, shops, or separate properties in the country; but in connexion with occupation it was thought desirable to distinguish masters from men, and for this purpose to ask the masters in trade and manufacture to so distinguish themselves by writing "master" after the names of their respective occupations, and by adding the number of men
on the Census day in their employ. Farmers, who are masters
of a particular occupation, were requested to state how many acres
of land
they occupied, and how many labourers
they employed, with a view of giving a definite idea of the term "farmer," and of laying the foundation of a, further inquiry. This information can evidently only be made perfectly accurate by a careful and laborious revision on the spot; but, in the absence of this revision, the returns furnish information of so much interest on a matter so imperfectly understood, that it was thought proper in 1851 to construct tables showing the size of farms in each county, together with the number of labourers that were employed. The return of the masters in trades is imperfect; all the masters have not so returned themselves; and it can only be rendered complete in the event of the Census being extended to an Inquiry into the Industry of the Country. Some uncertainty prevails as to whether the farmers returned here all their in-door farm servants; and women and boys were included in some cases and not in others. To obtain the total number of persons who are employed on the farm, the farmer himself must be added, and frequently the farmer's sons at home. The General Tables should be referred to in connexion with this subject; and it should be borne in mind that many of the agricultural labourers there entered arc out of employment, and are disabled; that many of the farmers by profession are superannuated, or have given up their farms—as the rule in the general abstracts has been in all cases to refer the retired tradesman or professional man to his profession, although he is only an ineffective member. As there is now some prospect that England as well as Ireland will enjoy the advantages of a system of Agricultural Statistics, we have not thought it necessary to abstract all the information in the returns. But if any inference can be drawn from the abstracts of ten counties (reckoning the North Riding of York as one), it would appear that the size of farms has increased in the last ten years. The farms of less than 100 acres declined from 31,583 to 26,567; so 5,016 were amalgamated to form other farms of larger acreage. See
Table 101, Appendix. The organization of the labour of the country may be considered in reference to the occupations; or the people may be classified in groups, easily distinguishable, on the principles that.have been adopted since the time of Linn¿us in the natural sciences. Great value would undoubtedly attach to an analysis of the existing organization of labour; under which the people, armed with capital, tools, and machines, carry on an endless variety of processes for the conversion of the materials of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, into an infinite variety of products. A preliminary provisional classification was framed at an early stage of the work in 1851, before either the analysis in question was undertaken or the nomenclature settled. The length of the list was curtailed within its present limits by referring the names of the different classes of workpeople in the branches of manufactures to one head, such as pin maker, needle-maker manufacturer, and silk manufacturer; for it was assumed that the subdivision of occupations will be separately investigated at a future time. The double occupations were as great a source of difficulty as the varying degrees of the subdivision of labour in the manufacturing and other districts. The same: person is, a member of parliament, a magistrate, a land proprietor and an occupier of land; in a lower circle, an innkeeper and a farmer; a maltster and a brewer; a fisherman m the season, a farmer or a labourer in the rest of the year. The enumerators were instructed to this effect, that a person following more than one distinct trade may "insert his occupations in the order of their importance;"
and in the classification the first occupation was generally taken. The whole population had to be passed in review, and every man had to he referred to some one head, although his time might be passed in two occupations; but it a class thus sometimes obtains more constituents than it deserves, it on the other hand often sustains counterbalancing losses. Arrangements were made on the working sheets by which a further analysis of the double occupations could be carried out. Table 99, Appendix, for instance, exhibits the other occupations of occupiers of land. With the knowledge that has now been acquired, a further inquiry may, we think, be instituted with advantage into the industry of the country in all its ramifications; a nomenclature be laid down; the various subdivisions of labour be defined; and the classification be finally revised, so that at the next Census the foundation may be laid of a complete knowledge of the organization of the labour of Great Britain. Such an inquiry would in many ways be useful, and tend at once to extend science, to promote production, and to dissipate subversive theories. For ready reference all the occupations are arranged alphabetically
in Table XVII., Vol. II., containing, besides the number of males and of females, distinct references showing in what class and sub-class of the classified tables each occupation is to be found. An inquirer can easily construct from this table a classification of his own for any particular purpose, as the number of persons in all the principal occupations is distinguished. In the present day costume is not in extensive use to distinguish one class of people from another. The soldier, the seaman, the policeman, the beadle, the footman, the butcher, the turncock, have peculiar dresses; the peer, the judge, the barrister, the clergyman, and the alderman assume costumes in discharging the particular duties of their offices: but few people in trades are now easily distinguishable by the colours or qualities of their clothing. If the people are looked at, however, in their several occupations, striking differences will be immediately perceived: (1) in the skill, talent,
or intelligence
that is exercised; (2) in the tools, instruments, machinery,
and structures
that are used; (3) in the materials
that are worked; (4) in the processes
of making or manufacturing; and (5) in the products
that are created. All these elements and their conflicting claims have been considered in the classification; but, in conformity with the first notions of mankind of which we have record, the greatest weight has been given to the materials
in which people work, as they generally imply important modifications not only in the tools, in the machines, m the processes, and in the products, but in the characters of the men How much is the philosopher distinguished from the artizan? How well characterized are all the members of the learned professions? By his trade, and by the matter which surrounds him, how different w the blacksmith from the tailor; the shoemaker from the hairdresser; the butcher from the baker; the horsedealer from the grocer; the sweep from the navy; the fisherman, the waggoner, the pedlar, and the cotton-spinner, from each other. The classification of 1851 has been entirely revised, and the new classification which we have adopted on the present occasion is described in a paper by Dr. Farr. See
Appendix, p.225. The whole of the population was arranged under eighteen orders, each distinguished by the character of its occupation, and the orders were collected under six classes. THE PROFESSIONAL CLASS comprises 431,957 persons; 385,345 males and 96,612 females. 87,350 persons are engaged in the general or local government of the country; and 79,653 of them are men of the age of 20 and upwards. 43,133 men are officers of the Government; 35,319 are officers of municipal and other local governing bodies; and 1,201 are officers of the East Indian and Colonial Government. As many of the officers, such as that of alderman and or magistrate, are filled by persons who are engaged in other pursuits, the whole of the numbers are rarely found under the respective heads; and it must be borne in mind that these offices are often honorary, and occupy only a portion of the lifetime. Table XIX shows, however, the relative ages, of the men and women in professions, of which the whole numbers arc not returned. The civil servants, not in the Post Office and Revenue Departments amount to 6,996; the Post Office and the Revenue Departments employ 22.518; 2,429 Government messengers and workmen were enumerated; 13,995 artificers and labourers were engaged in the dockyards. It will be observed that a great number of the men in the service of the Government belong to the industrial classes; but it appeared to be desirable to collect in one order all the persons who are in the employ or pay of the State. 2526 magistrates, 299 sheriffs officers, with 21,938 police, 2,612 prison officers, 6,133 ment; but 361 officers of local boards, 560 mayors, aldermen, and municipal officers, and 834 firemen fill offices too important to be overlooked. High-sheriffs, lord lieutenants, deputy lieutenants, coroners, high constables, clerks of the peace, and clerks of magistrates are often returned under other titles. There are 47 health officers in the return. This is a new medical office. Hitherto the medical skill of the country has been usefully employed in the treatment of the sick; but the science of life-preservation was neglected, and was rarely applied practically, because it formed no part of the business of the medical profession. The health officers, few in number, have already done incalculable good
; and the local government of no community is complete without them. The conditions on which health depends are so various as to require for their regulation the highest order of medical education and talent. The ancient office of executioner has one
representative left in England, 1,822 women are returned in the employ of the Post Office; 1,507 till the offices of matrons, &c. in the various unions; and 458 are prison officers. The numbers under any other head in the first class are small. The SECOND ORDER consists of 131,944 men at home—in the army and navy, effectives and ineffectives. The soldier is rarely retained longer than 20 years in the ranks; but he generally retires with a pension, and finds other employment, under which he is classed. Adding the numbers abroad, the Effectives in the order are 306,062. Only 11,342 men returned themselves as Chelsea pensioners; while the number of such pensioners on the list is 57,770. They are returned under other heads. In like manner only 6,095 seamen returned themselves as Greenwich pensioners, whereas there are 8,960 on the list, exclusive of 5,240 marines. While the non-commissioned officers and men are discharged on account of inefficiency before the middle age of life, the officers remain on the effective list in large numbers at the age of 60; thus, of 5,455 officers aged 20 years and upwards, 361 were of the age 60-70; 245 were 70-80; 33 were 80-85; 8 were 85-90; and 2
were 90-95. It has been conjectured that some officers on half-pay are included in these numbers; but taking the half-pay list the numbers of advanced age are largely augmented; thus 728 veteran officers on half-pay were of the age 60-70 5 and 324 were 70-80; 99 were 80-85; 29 were 85-90; 3 were 90-95; and one was 95 and on the way to 100. The longevity of naval officers on the effective list is equally remarkable; so that no absolute age of abdication appears to be recognized in the services. The THIRD ORDER has in its ranks 262,663 persons in the learned professions, or engaged in literature, art, or science. 19,195 clergymen, 7,840 Protestant ministers, 1,216 Roman Catholic priests, and 103 priests of other bodies were enumerated; besides 1,916 missionaries, itinerant preachers, and Scripture readers, 743 theological students are specified. Then there are sacristans and other church officers; officers of religious societies and clerical agents. The parish clerk is occupied in his church duties chiefly on, Sundays; hence he has other secular occupations of more or less importance. This is a striking example of double occupation; and of the officiating parish clerks of the kingdom only 2,140 are so returned, the others appearing under other heads. So it is of sextons, or gravediggers, as they often call themselves. 1,087 sextons are returned, and 161 sextonesses,-who probably act by deputy. The men of this Sub-order are 35,483, and the women 3,053. Among the women are 585 nuns of all ages, 90 pupils at convents, 236 young sisters of charity or mercy, and 752 pew openers. The female Scripture readers, religious teachers, and inmates of religious institutions are numerous. The LAW SUB-ORDER includes 34,991 persons, of whom only 21 are women chiefly law stationers; 60 judges, 3,071 barristers, 11,386 solicitors and attorneys, and 70 parliamentary agents are at the head of the list; 706 law students, 1,896 officers of law courts, and 16,605 law clerks follow; 1,172 law stationers and others complete the list. The MEDICAL SUB-ORDER comprises 38,441 persons, of whom 35,995 are men and 2,446 are women; 14,415 physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries are at the head of the list; 3,566 medical assistants and students, 1,567 dentists, and 16,026 chemists and druggists, including apprentices and. assistants (3,388 of the age 10-20), follow. Then there are of men, cuppers 10, officers of medical societies and agents 21, corn-cutters 56, professors of hydropathy and homoeopathy 27, herb doctors and patent medicine vendors 92, 82 medical botanists, 50 galvanists, 12 mesmerists, 21 hone-setters, 22 quack doctors, so returned, and 2 cancer doctors, besides others. The women consist chiefly of druggists 388 and midwives 1,913. These women, if properly instructed, are most useful, and otherwise they are dangerous. Midwifery is a branch of medicine which women are quite competent to study; but there are cases requiring the utmost skill and judgment of the physician. By a curious coincidence the numbers of men engaged respectively in the highest and lowest departments of the three learned professions are nearly equal; 35,483 are enrolled in divinity, 34,970 in law, and 35,995 in medicine; thus they constitute in the aggregate an array of 106,448 men, who, with their wives and children, would fill a large city. The progress of civilization introduces changes in men's occupations; and we have now for the first time placed with these three sub-orders six others not perfectly defined, but still distinct, and entitled to figure here; literary men, artists, musicians, actors, teachers, and scientific men. The teachers are a numerous sub-order, amounting to 30,347 men, to 80,017 women, and exclusive of these the five other sub-orders comprise 33,170 men and 7,l61 women. In the literary section 1,528 authors, editors, and public writers are counted, 636 reporters; among the artists 4,637 painters figure, 612 sculptors, 4,667 engravers, and 2,366 photographists (a new occupation); these are men; and there are besides 853 women painters, and 168 photographic artists. Of actors there are 1,311, of actresses 891- There are dancers and danseuses, and equestrians, conjurors and acrobats, ventriloquists (14), cricketers (102), pugilists (18), pedestrians, aeronauts, turfites and betting men, booth keepers, shooting-gallery keepers, and others ministering in the lowest fields of public amusements; 10,470 men and 4,721 women are devoted to music, including the great masters of song, the prima donna,
the solo performers on instruments, the chorus singers, the teachers of music, the street ballad singers, and the wretched organ grinders. The class shows various rates of increase in its various ranks. Thus in 1851 and 1861 the numbers of the clergy of the Church of England were 17,320 and 19,195; protestant ministers, 6,405 and 7,840; Roman catholic priests, 966 and 1,216- Barristers increased little (2,816 to 3,071); solicitors and attorneys were stationary, 11,350 and 11,386. Physicians and surgeons decreased (15,241 and 14,415); but medical students, assistants, and dentists increased. Upon the three groups in the aggregate there was an increase. There is a tendency to subdivision of labour in the professions. The chemists and druggists rose in number from 14,307 to 16,414. Photography has interfered with engraving; for we have at the two censuses, photographers, 45 and 2,534; engravers, 4,948 and 4,715; but, while the decrease of engravers is inconsiderable, the increase of the artists in photography is enormous. The taste for the beautiful art of music is more diffused; the musicians and music masters were 11,105 in 1851, and 15,021 in 1861. Of actors and actresses there was an increase. Civil engineering is also a profession rapidly increasing; the numbers were 2,577 and 3,329. 10,058,938 persons belong to the domestic order (4), including one-third of the male and two thirds of the female population. 2,650,096 wives and 269,142 widows are not otherwise described. These women are sometimes returned as of no occupation. But the occupation of wife and mother and housewife is the most important in the country, as will be immediately apparent if it be assumed for a moment to be suppressed. 838,856 wives are returned under other occupations, and so are 487,575 widows. Many daughters, sisters, nieces, and grand-daughters, resident with relatives, are here returned; but others are returned among the industrial classes engaged in household duties. The numbers were 2,279,257, of whom 246,874 were twenty years of age and upwards. Again, 1,597,310 females nearly all under the age of 20 were scholars. Deducting the numbers of this order, and of order 18, from the total female population, 3,436,749 women remain, who figure in the other orders, including the wives of 402,473 inn, beer, lodging-house, and shop—keepers, of farmers (also their daughters), shoemakers, and butchers. The occupation of the 3,436,749 women in other than household and maternal duties will be seen under the other classes. The male children and others in this order are 1,710,395; while the scholars (boys) so described are 1,552,738. The number of scholars has increased in the last ten years to an extent showing remarkably how the education of children was neglected down to the date of that enumeration. The two returns include children receiving private tuition at home. The proportions of the scholars of each quinquennial period of age are shown in Tables 102, 103, Appendix, which deserve careful study. The number of male scholars returned in the householders' schedules of 1851 agreed closely with the number of scholars deduced from the school returns of the Educational Census. And the Census of 1861 is in this respect certainly of equal accuracy. The number of scholars under 5 years of age has doubled in ten years. At the age 5-10 the scholars from 1,222,493 rose to 1,587,834; or from 61 to 69 in 100 boys, 56 to 66 girls living of that age. 2 of the 100 boys are returned under some occupation, and 37 boys, 43 girls in 100 are at home, or not scholars, and of no stated occupation. At this age the proportion of boys at school is greater than the proportion of girls. At the next period of life (age 10-15), the scholars from 772,906 in 1851 rose to 1,028,897 in 1861; thus 39 and 45 boys and 41 and 52 girls in 100 were returned as scholars at the two censuses. The proportion of boys in recognized occupations remains the same as it was (37 in 100); and so is the lower proportion of girls (20); the increase of scholars arising from the transfer to the class scholars of numbers from the unoccupied class at home, which even in 1861 comprised 18 in 100 boys, 27 in 100 girls. In 1861 the scholars increased at the age of 15-20; when we have 37,208 boys and 59,126 girls returned as scholars, 4 and 6 per cent. of the whole number; 91 in 100 boys, and 69 in 100 girls, being employed in other classes. A high proportion, 25 in 100, of the girls of 15-20, are at home, and unclassed in any definite occupation, but they are often employed in household duties. The education of nearly all, except the professional classes, is completed at the age of twenty; but 3,862 males and 1,673 females are returned as scholars of that age and upwards. 4,449,242 children were living between the ages of 5 and 15; 2,616,731 it is gratifying to find were "scholars" receiving instruction j 638,274 were occupied in various ways; and, unfortunately, 1,194,247 were at home, apparently deriving no instruction from any of the schools. The fifth order (Class II.) comprises 1,367,782 persons, who are engaged in entertaining and performing personal services; 210,783 are males and 1,156,999 are females. The first sub-order of 159,134 persons (73,336 males and 85,798 females) comprises the great class of hotel-keepers, innkeepers, publicans, lodging-house keepers, and eating-house keepers. 66,260 persons, namely, 52,735 men and 13,525 women, are returned. as hotel, &c, keepers, licensed victuallers, or publicans. The number of publicans' licences in force in the year 1861 was 64,991 The men of the second sub-class are nearly all domestic servants; 24,453 are inn and clubhouse servants, 554 are college servants, and 1,651 are hospital attendants. Of the domestic servants, 11,897 are coachmen, 21,396 are grooms, and 14,621 are gardeners, who are intimately connected with the third or fourth class. 224,642 men servants were taxed by the Inland Revenue Department, and 17,834 were exempt from charge in the census year, the former including 73,030 servants under 18, and 141,453 servants of 18 years of age and upwards, besides 7,404 under-gardeners, and 2,755 under-gamekeepers. The net of taxation, therefore, encloses 90,199 men, who are probably out-door and not domestic servants, living in detached dwellings, and calling themselves simply gardeners, grooms, gamekeepers, labourers, or something else. The male servants who are charged are evidently not all domestic servants, with whom they must not be confounded. Of the 17,834 servants exempt, 2,001 are kept by officers of the Army and Navy. Of 1,208,648 women of the second sub-order, 65.273 are charwomen; 2,797 are nurses or attendants at hospitals, and 24,821 are nurses, not apparently domestic servants; 67,785 nurses are domestic servants. There are 962,786—nearly a million—female domestic servants in the country; 102,462 are returned as housemaids, 77,822 as cooks, 66,406 as housekeepers, and 644,271 without any special description. In addition, 14,145 female servants are attached to hotels, clubs, and dining-rooms. Many daughters at home, it will also be borne in mind, perform the duties of domestic servants. The number of servants has increased since 1831 by 30,267 males and 415,952 females; the males having increased at a slower rate, the females at a faster rate than the general population. See
below Tables V. and VI. Products are often exchanged directly by the producer and consumer; still, under the commercial class, 623,710 persons are ranged, namely, 585,420 males 'and 38,290 females. They are naturally divided into two orders. The first is the mercantile order (6), and it includes 12,944 merchants, 1,363 bankers, 596 bank officers and agents, 2,716 insurance officers and agents, 101 actuaries, 1,682 stock and share brokers or dealers, 2,563 ship brokers, 2,884 brokers, 8,695 agents or factors, besides 1,926 coal and colliery agents, and 772 iron merchants or agents, 3,542 auctioneers, appraisers, or valuers,1
6,239 accountants, 55,657 commercial clerks, and 10,754 commercial travellers. Then in the section of General Dealers, males, are 4,726 pawnbrokers, 3,656 marine store dealers, 12,548 hucksters and costermongers or general dealers, and 13,704 hawkers or pedlars. At some shops a great variety of articles is retailed; and we have 4,556 shopkeepers of branches undefined. Of women 758 are, employed in pawnbroking, 3,331 as costermongers and hucksters, 8,088 as hawkers, and 10,024 as shopkeepers, branches undefined. In the carrying order are 440,067 persons, chiefly males, 431,186; females, only 8,881. In its six sections are 53,542 persons in the railway service, 104,054 persons engaged at carrying work in streets and on roads, 35,817 on canals, and 141,848 on seas and rivers. The latter number includes only the 94,665 seamen at home in the merchant service. If we add the 64,804 abroad, the number of persons in the carrying order on rivers and seas will amount to 206,652. TABLE V.—NUMBER OF DOMESTIC SERVANTS in ENGLAND and WALES enumerated at the Censuses of 1831, 1851, and 1861 TABLE VI.—AVERAGE ANNUAL RATE of INCREASE per cent of DOMESTIC SERVANTS and of the GENERAL POPULATION in ENGLAND and WALES in the Intervals of the Censuses 1831 to 1851 and 1851 to 1861. Among the carriers of men and things on roads are coach, cab, and omnibus owners, 3,226; coachmen (not domestic servants, from whom they are not easily distinguishable in imperfect returns), 17,251; cab and flymen, 9,055; carriers, carmen, carters, and draymen, 67,070; as well as 3,263 toll-collectors. Besides the seamen on seas and rivers, we have among the men 1,568 shipowners, 2,980 pilots, 1,275 boatmen on seas at Deal and elsewhere, 1,447 wharfingers, 3,568 persons in the steam navigation service, 1,471 ship stewards. The warehousing of goods and storeage, with meting and packing, employed 20,095 men and 4,321 women. Porters, messengers, and errand boys carry goods short distances, but they frequently carry verbal messages or letters. Their number was 74,592, of whom 27,759 were boys under 15 years of age. This is exclusive of 1,977 cotton porters. We have 141 couriers; 20 guides. The new telegraphic transmission of intelligence employed 2,399 men and boys, 493 being boys of 10-15, and 862 boys of 15-20. Few old people are in the service. Of 213 women only 2 girls were under 15, 6l were of the age 15-20, and 100 were 20 and under 25, 33 were 25-30, and only 17 exceeded the age of 30. The number of males and females in the telegraph service was 261 in 1851, and 2,612 in 1861. See also
the Post Office Service, Class I. We come now to the great central productive class of the country, in which 2,010,454 persons are directly employed, 1,631,652 males and 378,802 females. — 8,926 are woodmen and persons engaged in the woods and forests, including only 9 women; 81,532 persons (79,675 males) are engaged in the cultivation of fruit, flowers, and garden stuff. Of men we have 8 trufflers, 8 servants of Horticultural societies, 55 water-cress growers, 2,838 nurserymen, and 76,760 gardeners. As the land proprietors of the country fill many public offices under which they are returned, the tabular numbers are defective; thus, under this title, 15,131 males and 15,635 females are returned, making in the aggregate 30,766. The farmers and graziers, including those retired, or not in the actual occupation of farms, amounted to 249,735; 226,057 men—and 22,778 women, who often display remarkable talent in the manage ment of large establishments. The farmers' sons, brothers, grandsons, and nephews at home of the age of 15 and upwards generally work on the farm, an d their number is 92,321; then there are 914,301 agricultural labourers, 25,559 shepherds, and 158,401 Indoor farm servants. 94,959 of the in-door servants are under 20 years of age. TABLE VII.—NUMBER OF PERSONS ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURE IN ENGLAND AND WALES, ENUMERATED AT EACH OF THE CENSUSES 1851 AND 1861. TABLE VIII.—NUMBER OF FARMERS AND GRAZIERS, FARM BAILIFFS, FARM SERVANTS (IN-DOOR), AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS, AND SHEPHEREDS (OUT-DOOR) ENUMERATED AT THE CENSUSES OF 1851 AND 1861 IN ENGALND AND WALES. Besides 22,778 women who are designated farmers, there are 163,765 farmers wives and 83 830 farmers' daughters, and other relatives, of the age of 15 and upwards, who are engaged more or lessen the dairy and other work of the farm. English women do not work extensively in the fields, except during harvest; yet 43,964 are returned as out-door agricultural labourers, and 46,561 as in-door farm servants (dairymaids, &c.) The number of persons who are employed on the land depends upon the kind of culture; and less labour than was engaged in 1851 might create produce of a greater value in 1861. This was probably the case, The number of men at work on Farms was rather less in 1861 than in 1851 (see
Table VIII., p. 35 of Report). It is difficult to draw any certain deduction from the earlier returns; but they seem to show that the increase of farmers and farm labourers since 1801 bears no kind of proportion either to the increase of agricultural produce or to the increase of the industrial class. Closely connected, and in the same class with the farmers and graziers, are 86,344 persons engaged about animals; of whom 85,985 are males, and only 359 are females. It includes of men, 1,284 horse owners, breeders, and dealers; 1,488 horse-breakers; 36,595 horsekeepers and grooms (many of them out-door servants), 6,774 farriers, 9,848 gamekeepers, 1,758 ratcatchers and vermin destroyers, and 16,992 fishermen. Nearly all the women of the order are fisherwomen (235). The number of gamekeepers was 7,703 in 1851 and 9,848 in 1861. The number of persons licensed to kill game in 1861 was 34,441, and the number of licensed keepers was 2,536. THE INDUSTRIAL CLASS (V) consists of 4,828,399 persons, 3,262,510 males and 1,565,889 females. More than a million young people of both sexes under 20 years of age are employed in one or other of its six orders, besides 2,580,425 men and 1,164,410 women of the age of twenty and upwards. The first order (10) in the class consists of 953,289 persons, chiefly males, for only 60,067 of the number are females. 54,293 persons are employed in making or selling books and newspapers. Many thousands are engaged in making and selling musical instruments, prints, carvings, designs, and tackle for sports. 20,221 males and only 536 women are engaged in watchmaking; 13,744 men and women manufacture and sell arms; 117,418 machines and tools; 20,128 carriages; 19,414 harness; 43,779 ships and boats; 505,671 houses, The 25,579 women comprise 24,630 house proprietors; the 480,092 men, 11, 402 house proprietors. This building sub-order is only numerous in countries where many new houses and structures are erected; they are early sufferers in a revolution or in a country's decay. In furniture 63,916 persons are employed; on implements 39,623; chemicals 20,009. Some of these trades are rapidly increasing; thus in 1851 the printers amounted to 22,399, in 1861 to 30,590; in the same years the musical instrument makers and dealers were 3,971 and 5,168; lithographers 1,393 and 2,912; wood carvers 1,163 and 1,834; gunsmiths 7,440 and 11,873; engine and machine makers 42,597 and 60,862 ¿ coachmakers 15,347 and 18,870; shipbuilders and shipwrights 21,100 and 31,294; carpenters and joiners 156,267 and 177,969; brick-makers 29,019 and 39,620; bricklayers 67,158 and 79,458; masons 77,733 and 84,434; painters, plumbers, and glaziers 57,576 and 74,619; cabinet makers and upholsterers 34,649 and 41,037. 2,231,617 persons are engaged in making and in dealing in the textile fabrics; 238,814 in wool; 117,989 in silk; 563,014 in cotton and flax; 83; 170 in mixed materials. In converting these products and others further into dress 1,205,747 persons are employed, namely, 399,166 males and 806,581 females. Great numbers in the domestic class are partially employed in making, mending, and washing dresses. The number of persons who are employed on a product does not bear any constant proportion to its quantities; thus by the introduction of machinery the number of weavers is reduced, while the amount of cloth is increased enormously; and generally the greatest increase of artisans since 1851 is in trades to which machinery has not yet been successfully supplied, as in the building trades; but it sometimes happens, as in the cotton manufacture, that the increase of hands is caused by the application of machinery, which reduces the price of products so much as to place them within the reach of innumerable customers. We may now notice the numbers returned in 1851 and 1861 tinder different branches of textile manufacture:—Woollen cloth manufacture 122,256 and 130,034 persons; worsted manufacture 102,714 and 79,242; silk manufacture 111,940 and 101,678; cotton manufacture 371,777 and 456,646, calico or cotton printers 12,098 and 12,556; calico dyers 3,278 and 4,772; flax and linen manufacturers 21,325 and 22,050. Among persons in the order of dress the hairdressers remained nearly stationary, 11,220 11,064; hatters 15,957 and 13,8145 straw hat and bonnet makers 20,393 and 18,176 tailors 132,715 and 136,390; milliners and dressmakers 234,712 and 287,101; shoe makers 240,252 and 250,581. 430,220 persons worked or dealt in food and drinks, 347,614 males and 82,606 females The numbers were nearly equally distributed among the sub-orders:—that dealing in animal food 141,185, that dealing in vegetable food 136,354, and that trading in drinks and stimulants 152,681. In the years 1851 and 1861 the cowkeepers and milksellers amounted to 14,386 and 17,694; the butchers to 62,185 and 68,114; fishmongers 9,081 and 11,305; bakers 51,738 and 54,140; maltsters (masters and men) 10,566 and 10,677; brewers (masters and men) 17,380 and 20,352; grocers and tea-dealers 71,658 and 93,483. 12,040 persons are working in grease, gut, bone horn, ivory and whalebone, of whom the majority are soap boilers, tallow-chandlers, and comb-makers. The soap boilers in 1851 and 1861 were 1,216 and 1,623, tallow-chandlers 4,949 and 4,686, and the comb-makers 2,038 and 1,478. The progress of civilization has been greatly promoted by these trades; for cleanliness and artificial light distinguish the English and other civilized nations from barbarians, immersed in dirt and darkness. The decrease of the tallow chandlers is counterbalanced by the rise of a gas-service, and combs are now often made of metal. Skins, feathers, and quills furnish employment for 29,756 persons, of whom 28,360 are males, 1,396 are females. The leather-manufacture occupies the majority; the numbers of curriers and tanners in 1851 and l861 were 19,571 and 21,493. 14,296 persons were working in hair and bristles; 9,711 men and 4,585 women. In 1851 and 1861 there were 2,470 and 3,002 persons engaged in the hair and bristal manufacture; 9,393 and 11,178 persons engaged in making and selling brushes and brooms. There were 144,184 persons, chiefly males, working and dealing in vegetable substances, exclusive of those used as food; 14,669 in gums and resins, 79,066 in wood, 2,352 in bark, 17,302 in cane, rush, and straw, and 30,805 in paper. Notwithstanding the introduction of saw-mills, sawyers increased slightly in ten years from 30,552 to 31,647; coopers were at the two censuses 16,029 and 17,821; cork-cutters 1,753 and 2,257; basket makers 8,016 and 8,899; rug gathers and dealers 2,851 and 3,462; paper
makers 10,809 and 13,357. The number of women employed in paper making at the last census was 5,611; and the number of men 7,740. We now come to the great order of workers in minerals, in which 1,012,997
are engaged. Few women work in this laborious field, for 956,684 of the number are males. The first sub-order of miners consists of 330,352 men, of whom 248,284 are connected with coalpits as owners, inspectors, clerks, or colliers. 32,041 are tin or copper-miners, 18,552 are lead-miners, 20,626 are iron-miners, 7,502 are indefinitely described as miners, 2,502 are described as secretaries and servants of mining companies. Coal-miners or colliers in the last ten years increased from 18,359 to 216,613; copper and tin-miners from 31,360 to 32,041, The export of coal and the import of copper partly account for the discrepancy, and for the increase of the numbers employed in the copper and tin manufactures from 10,637 to 15,040. The number of coal-heavers was 15,540 in 1851 and 17,410 in 1861, when the coal-merchants and dealers were 1 l,201 and 12,266; and coke-banners or dealers, 2,110 and 3,075. The production of gas occupies more persons every year; gas-meter, &c. makers at the two causes were 136 and 314; the gas-fitters 2,217 and 5,469; persons in the gas-works service 4,718 and 8,672. Upon work in coal and its immediate products coke and gas nearly 300,000 persons were employed in 1861. Women are still employed at coal works, chiefly at the pit's mouth; their number was 3,260 and 3,763 in 1851 and 1861. In stone and clay 144,773 persons were employed, of whom 142,170 were males, Including 22,243 stone quarries, quarry agents and owners, 4,679 stone agents, merchants, and cutters, 9,360 slate-quarriers, 5,507 limestone and lime workers, 82 stone dredgers and diggers, 139 coprolite diggers and dealers, and 1,069 plaster and cement manufacturers or dealers, are indications of peculiar trades. Of clay labourers in 1851 and 1861 there were 1,427 and 2,912; of brick-makers 29,019 and 39,620. Thus showing an increased demand for the building materials which are not produced by machinery. Of railway labourers, navvies, excavators, and platelayers, the number was 34,618 and 43,008; of road surveyors, contractors, and labourers 8,611 and 10,495; the increase being considerable among those employed both on the iron and stone ways of the nation. Of the not very agreeable but of the very important group of scavengers and nightmen, we had 1,065 and 1,374 at the two censuses. 1,203 and 1,852 women were returned as brickmakers; hence the number of women so employed is increasing. A certain number also work in clay. 47,144 144' persons are working in earthenware; 32,981 males and 14,163 females, The persons employed in this important manufacture were 34,341 and 38,072 in 1851 and 1861, when the dealers and importers of earthenware and glass were 4,605 and 4,965. The makers of tobacco pipes, and of drainage and other pipes, are sometimes apparently confounded under the common name of pipe-makers; but as far as could be ascertained the number of tobacco-pipe makers was 3,637 at the last and 3,882 at the previous census. 15,603 persons work in glass, including only 1,392 women. We see here the effects of the liberation of the manufacture from the Excise Duty; the numbers engaged in the glass manufacture in 1851 and 1861 were 11,282 and 15,046. In saltworks 1,412 and 2,120 persons were employed at the two censuses; so that the amount of labour which is expended in producing this important article is not considerable, but is increasing. The addition of merchants and dealers makes the number 2,527. Water is an article of greater necessity than salt, and although it is bountifully distributed in this country by the Author of nature, its supply in a state of purity demands labour and skill. The water of nearly all our wells in towns and the water of many wells in the country is impure. It is therefore gratifying to observe, that since 1851 the men in the waterworks' service have increased from 864 to 1506 in 1861, when we had also 523 well-sinkers, 77 water carriers and dealers, 23 ice makers, merchants, or dealers. Gold, silver, and precious stones are imported; so the numbers employed in finding and getting them do not figure in our accounts; the workers here were 21,576 in 1861. The numbers are increasing; in 1851 and 1861 we had 11,391 and 16,247 goldsmiths, silversmiths, jewellers, and lapidaries, the latter number including 1,733 women, chiefly young persons. 298 men and 858 women are guard-chain makers. 9,733 persons, exclusive of miners, worked in copper in 1861, including 3,827 men and 3,961 women in copper manufactures. 1,882 men and 11 women are coppersmiths. The numbers of persons in the copper manufacture rose from 6,558 to 7,788 in ten years. On tin and quicksilver 22,878 persons were employed; 18,434 males and 4,444 females. In the tin manufacture, 3,266 men and 3,986 women were employed; as tin-workers and tinkers 7,720 men and 121 women; as tin-plate workers 7,278 men and only 282 women. There are 81 men and 22 women engaged on tinfoil. The numbers in the tin manufacture were 4,079 and 7,252, in tin-plate working 3,473 and 7,560, at the two censuses. The zinc manufacture employed 432 and 760 men at the two censuses. In lead and antimony 4,997 persons were working in 1861, including 970 women and 4,027 men. Of the men, 2,797 are engaged in lead manufacture, 313 are pewterers, and 863 are type-founders; of the women, 938 are lead-workers, 11 are type-founders. The increase of work in lead is not considerable. In brass and other mixed metals 45,577 persons are working, 41,612 men and 3,965 women. Among the men we have 1,517 metal refiners and dealers, 15,985 brass founders and manufacturers, 2,219 braziers, 5,472 locksmiths and bell-hangers, 5,448 gas-fitters, 900 white metal manufacturers, 322 pin manufacturers, 3,342 wire makers, 2,287 wire-workers, 919 lamp and lantern makers, and 494 spoon makers. There is a great increase in this kind of work; the brass founders and manufacturers, with braziers, were 14,725 and 18,510, the wire-drawers and wire-workers 4,147 and 5,974, at the two censuses. 316,572 persons, exclusive of miners, worked in iron and steel, at the time of the census; 299,697 men and 16,875 women. Of the men, 123,430 worked in iron manufactures; 9,852 were whitesmiths; 107,770 blacksmiths; 15,369 made nails; 3,964 were anchor and chain-smiths; 13,016 boiler makers; 9,166 ironmongers; 1,080 hardware dealers; 3,186 steel-makers and workers-, 1,247 grinders; 903 bit-makers; 1,042 stove and grate makers; 1,871 bolt-makers; 1,062 key-makers; 1,137 screw-cutters. Of the women, 2,341 were in iron factories; 10,761 made nails; and 1,546 were screw-cutters. There has been a great extension of this branch of work; the persons at the two censuses in the iron manufactures were 68,053 and 125,771; boiler-makers, 6,022 and 13,020. But nails as well as needles, and some other iron and steel products, are now made extensively by machinery, so the persons employed in the nail manufacture fell from 26,940 in 1851 to 26,130 in 1861, when 15,369 men and 10,761 women were employed in this work, which is begun at a very early age. This Class arises in great part from imperfect returns, which rendered the distribution of a certain number of people in their places under the preceding classes impossible. Thus in Order 16. 306,544 men are simply returned labourers, 11,621 mechanics, order 10. 3,550 shopmen, and 2,584 apprentices, the particular branch of labour, art, or shopkeeping being left undefined. Steam-engines are, like men, employed on railways, on rivers and seas, and in factories of various kinds; hence we have here 9,318 undistributed engine drivers, stokers, and firemen, in this indefinite class. 110,299 persons in Order 17. are returned; 22,870 men solely as gentlemen or annuitants, and 87,429 women as gentlewomen or annuitants. 77,993 persons are supported by the community, and of no specified occupation; they include pensioners, dependants on relatives, alms persons, paupers, prisoners, and others of no specified profession. Then there are vagrants, beggars, gipsies, and others of no stated occupation. 385,974 of the class are males, and.158,120 are females. Such is a brief sketch of the distribution of the work of every variety in which 20,066,224 of people are engaged. The whole of the details, arranged under the several classes and orders, will be found in Table XIX. for males and Table XX. for females, Vol. II. The ages of males and females in the principal occupations
are given for London and for the several counties under their respective divisions. The number of males of the age of 20 and upwards following the principal occupations are also given under each district. For the females, there is a similar table. The distribution of the six classes over the kingdom is shown in Tables 82, 83 (App.) 1
3,658 auctioneers took out licences in the year ending 31st March 1861. VII.—OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE.
1. Previous Classifications.
Previous classification
2. The Abstracts of the Occupations of the People,
1861.
Occupations
Improvement in the quality of the information
Nomenclature
Classification of People of various OCCUPATIONS in QUINQUENNIAL PERIODS of AGE
Distribution of all the chief occupations shown in districts over the country
3. Distribution of the People in various Occupations over the Country.
Simple occupations of the early stages of society
Multiplied occupations of the present day. Map exihibiting a large number of occupations:
Agricultural population:
Shipping population: Fishermen
General diffusion of the occupations of towns
Table 86
4. Masters in Trades, and Men in their Employ.
Masters and men
Farmers' acres of land, number of labourers
5. Farmers and Labourers, and the Size of Farms.
Tables 87-101
6. On Nomenclature, and on the Classification of People.
Organization of labour
The new classification
Double occupations
The prosecution of a further inquiry
Alphabetical arrangement of occupations in Vol II, Census 1861
7. The New Classification of the People in their several Occupations.
Characteristic custumes
CLASS I. (PROFESSIONAL)
Order 1
Census 1861, Vol.II
Order 2. Army and Navy
Table 122
Order 3
CLASS II. (DOMESTIC)
Order 4
England and Wales.
1851
1861
Male scholars
1,170,136
1,552,738
Female scholars
1,127,096
1,597,310
2,297,232
3,150,048
Order 5
CLASS III. (COMMERCIAL)
Order 6
Order 7
YEARS
PERSONS
MALES
FEMALES
1831
665709
104730
560979
1841
1851
908138
124595
783543
1861
1111928
134997
976931
YEARS
Average Annual Rate of Increase per Cent
Domestic Servants
General Population
Males
Females
Males
Females
1831—1851
0.87
1.68
1.31
1.26
1851—1861
0.81
2.23
1.08
1.18
CLASS IV. (AGRICULTURAL)
Order 8
OCCUPATIONS
PERSONS
MALES
FEMALES
1851
1861
1851
1861
1851
1861
Total of Agricultural Order
2,011,447
1,924,110
1,559,762
1,545,667
451,685
378,443
Land Proprietor
30,315
30,766
17,047
15,131
13,268
15,635
Farmer, Grazier
249,431
249,735
226,515
226,957
22,916
22,778
Farmer, Grazier's wife
164,618
163,765
164,618
163,765
Farmer's Son, Grandson, Brother, Nephew
11,704
92,321
111,704
92,321
Farmer's Daughter, Grand-daughter, Sister, Neice
105,147
83,830
105,147
83,830
Farm Baliff
10,561
15,698
10,561
15,698
Agricultural Labourer (Out-Door)
952,997
958,265
908,678
914,301
44,319
43,964
Shepard (Out-door)
12,517
25,559
12,517
25,559
Farm Servant (in-door)
288,272
204,962
189,116
158,401
99,156
46,561
Land Surveyor, Land, Estate, Agent
3,064
4,702
3,064
4,702
Agricultural Student
104
490
104
490
Hop Grower
30
33
30
33
Willow, Rod, Grower, Dealer
60
35
59
35
1
Teazle Grower, Merchant
85
81
85
81
Agricultural Implement Proprietor
55
236
50
236
5
Agricultural Engine and Machine Worker
1,205
1,205
Land Drainage Service (Not in Towns)
11
1,761
11
1,761
Colonial Planter, Farmer
16
91
16
91
Others connected with Agriculture
128
117
116
73
12
44
Woodman, Wood Gatherer
7,772
8,916
7,772
8,907
9
Others connected with Aboriculture
236
10
220
10
16
Gardener (not domestic servant)
71,805
78,533
69,685
76,760
2,120
1,773
Nursery Man, Woman (Horticulturist)
2,383
2,917
2,350
2,838
33
79
Watercress Grower
39
55
39
55
Others connected with Horticulture
97
27
23
22
74
5
1851
1861
1,347,387
1,340,916
Order 9
CLASS V. (INDUSTRIAL)
Order 10
Order 11
Order 12
Order 13
Order 14
Order 15 : 1
Order 15 : 2
Order 15 : 3
Order 15 : 4
Order 15 : 5
Order 15 : 6
Order 15 : 7
Order 15 : 8
Order 15 : 9
Order 15 : 10
Order 15 : 11. Order 15 : 12
Order 15 : 13
Order 15 : 14
CLASS VI. (INDEFINITE AND NON-PRODUCTIVE)
Order 16
Order 17
Order 18